Translation of literary texts is one of the most complex and interesting aspects of translation studies. This type of translation is closely related to the translation of various stylistic expressive means that make the text vivid, memorable and unique.
Metaphors are considered to be one of these expressive means. Metaphors are a universal phenomenon, because they exist in all languages: in English ( a sunny smile ), in Russian ( брачные оковы ), in Kazakh ( егіз қозыдай ), etc. They are a valuable source of information and an indicator of the development of language, culture and speech.
According to Newmark P., a metaphor is «the application of a word or collocation to what it does not literally denote, i.e., to describe one thing in terms of another» [1, p. 104]. In other words, a metaphor arises as a transfer of a name from one object to another based on the similarity of perceptions, emotional, psychological and taste ideas, internal and external features of an object or phenomenon (for example, size: he is an elephant , shape: awing of an airplane , color: blue streak , etc.). Metaphor can be called the main subject of cognition of objects of reality.
Any metaphor consists of the following components: the tenor, the vehicle and the ground [2].
The term «tenor» refers to the concept being represented in a metaphor. It can be a person, a thing, an object, etc. It is the subject of metaphors, its main aim.
The vehicle is the image that is representing the tenor. It carries the weight of the comparison. In other words, the vehicle is the means by which we talk about tenor, or the words by which the metaphor is expressed.
The ground is the relationship between the topic and the vehicle. It enables the metaphor to work and to make sense.
The metaphor is usually expressed by a noun ( a throne of lies ), a verb ( the wind sings ) or an adjective ( my friend has an open heart ).
There are a lot of different classifications of metaphors. One of the most complete and comprehensive classifications belongs to P. Newmark, since it fully conveys all the features of metaphors. He identifies six different types of metaphors: dead, cliché, stock, adapted, recent, and original.
Dead metaphors are metaphors that have lost their figurative character. They are often found when describing time, space, geographical [1, p. 106]. Dead metaphors are usually registered in dictionaries. Example: at the foot of the mountain .
Clichés are metaphors which have lost their aesthetic component to some extent. There are a large number of clichéd metaphors that we use on a daily basis in everyday life. Example: time is money .
A stock metaphor is used for describing a concrete or abstract concept that has an emotional impact on the reader. Unlike dead metaphor, it has an active aesthetic function. Example: to throw light on .
The adapted metaphors are metaphors that have been adapted into a new context. Such metaphors are non-standard and are rarely encountered in texts. Adapted metaphors often include proverbs. Example: to carry coals to Newcastle .
Recent metaphors are used as «a metaphorical neologism, often anonymously coined, which has spread rapidly in the source language» [1, p. 111]. Example: greenback .
Original metaphors are metaphors that are used individually by an author. They are often used to highlight some important points and to catch the attention of the reader. Example: « Exhaustion is a thin blanket tattered with bullet holes » (from the novel «If Then» by Matthew De Abaitua).
Structurally, metaphors are divided into simple and extended metaphors. Simple metaphors are represented by one lexical unit: she was a dragon . A metaphor that implements several images, linked together by a central word, is called extended: hope is the thing with feathers .
When translating metaphors, the translator can refer to various types of translation methods. One of the most complete classifications belongs to Borkovets N. I. [3]. This classification includes literal translation, equivalent translation, descriptive translation, translation transformations, compensation, neutralization.
Literal translation is used when creating a literal equivalent in the target language).
Equivalent translation means that translator is trying to search for an equivalent in the target language.
Descriptive translation means lexical replacement using additional explanations, comparisons and descriptions.
Translation transformations is replacing the original metaphorical image with an image that is accepted in the target language.
Compensation is used when the translator decides to convey any language units that are present in the original language using other units. The way of expression changes, but the meaning remains the same.
Neutralization of the metaphor is used less often and is undesirable, since in this case the meaning of the metaphor and its originality are lost.
Problems in translating metaphors arise due to the fact that a translator has to face the problem of translating cultural characteristics reflected in the structure of the metaphor itself. The translator needs to take into account both the culture of the source language and the target culture. These cultures can interact with each other or not interact at all, as a result of which it will be hard to convey a metaphor in such a way that its original meaning remains the same, has the same stylistic and expressive coloring and preserved all the ideas embodied in the metaphor.
Other difficulties in translating metaphors are affected by the following aspects: the geographical aspect, the ethnographic aspect, the socio-political aspect, the historical aspect.
For example, the ethnographic aspect includes metaphors that affect everyday life, work, art, culture, monetary measures of one particular culture. Examples: you are my lucky penny — ты мой талисман , someone’s two cents — чужие пять копеек . The penny is a British bargaining chip, the cent is also a small change in the US and some other countries. Both of these currencies are not used in the CIS countries, so it is necessary to use equivalents that will be understandable to everyone without referring to dictionaries or any other additional sources.
The translation of metaphors is an extremely complex phenomenon that requires requires a detailed analysis of the author's language means, the selection of such translation techniques that will convey not only the meaning of the work itself, but also the uniqueness of the style of the author’s text.
We have considered the main characteristics of metaphors and problems that arise in the process of their translation. This allows us to make a practical analysis of the metaphors selected from the works of the English classical literature «The Picture of Dorian Gray» by O. Wilde and «Wuthering Heights» by E. Bronte.
The first metaphor that was found is «heavy scent». It is expressed by an adjective. The tenor is «scent», the vehicle is «heavy». The ground is the fact that the scent is called heavy, thereby giving it the characteristics of material objects.
According to the P. Newmark’s classification, the metaphor «heavy scent» is classified as stock. It is occasionally used in ordinary speech, but this metaphor is still able to perform an aesthetic function and impress the reader. Structurally, this metaphor is simple.
The translator applied the method of literal translation for this metaphor: «тяжелый запах».
Another metaphor is «gleam of blossoms». It is expressed by a noun. Its tenor is the word «blossoms», the vehicle is «gleam». The ground is a transfer of characteristics of one phenomenon to another one. Gleam means «a small bright light». Blossoms are not physically capable of being a source of light. Therefore, the qualities of another object are attributed to them. Metaphor is stock and simple.
It was translated into Russian as «золотистые соцветия». The translator decided to neutralize the metaphor and replace it with an epithet.
The metaphor «burden of a beauty» is also expressed by a noun. The tenor is «beauty», its vehicle is the word «burden». The ground is the comparison of a physical burden that means something heavy with an aesthetic intangible concept of a human beauty.
It is original, because this metaphor was used only in this work. In this case, the author describes beauty as something harmful, while usually beauty is described as a valuable and precious gift.
The structure of the metaphor is simple. The translator decided to neutralize this metaphor and translated it with the noun «вес».
The metaphor «smothered the storm» is simple. Its tenor is the word «storm», the vehicle is «smothered». This metaphor is expressed by the verb «smothered».
In this particular case, E. Bronte creates an original metaphor by comparing the environment and the behavior of another person. The character calms down after the outburst and tries to control himself so as not to provoke more conflict. Thus, he seems to calm the storm that is going on in his soul.
Translation into Russian was carried out by using an equivalent with a different image, but the same meaning, which previously existed in the Russian language: «взял себя в руки».
The metaphor «a glare of white letters» is extended. It is expressed by the noun «glare», which is also the tenor. The word «letters» is the vehicle.
The ground of this metaphor is based on a comparison of letters written on paper with a flash of fire. The character looked at the letters written on the parchment for so long that it began to seem to him that they flared up like fire and began to circle around him in a dance. In fact, his vision was affected by trying to read something in a dark room without a normal light source. The metaphor is original.
When translating into Russian, the translator resorted to the method of compensation, as a result of which the «glare» was conveyed using the words «огонь» and «полыхнули». In the phrase «white letters», the word «white» was transferred to the phrase «белый огонь». The entire metaphor has been translated as follows: «белым огнем полыхнули буквы».
The metaphor «my heart warmed» is simple and is expressed by the verb «warmed». It is also the vehicle of the metaphor. The tenor is the noun «heart».
There are a huge number of metaphors associated with the heart, since this human organ is associated with different sentimental values and emotions. In this case, the metaphor is used to show that the character had a positive attitude towards another person and turned out to be interested in his personality. To create a metaphor, the heart was given the characteristics of other, material objects. As already mentioned, these types of metaphors are quite common in works of art and in ordinary everyday speech, so this metaphor is stock.
When translating, the translator decided to erase the metaphorical image and neutralized the metaphor: «пробудившаяся во мне симпатия». This was done for the reason that the literal translation «мое сердце согрелось» would remain incomprehensible to readers of the translation, and the existing equivalent «льды между нами начали таять» would not fit in the meaning due to being on a different semantic level.
The main emphasis in our work was placed on the study of the translation of metaphors. The translation of metaphors inevitably causes many difficulties that the translator has to face. We examined these problems and found that among the most common problems in the translation of metaphors are the following.
In conclusion, the translation of metaphors is an interesting translation problem. The translator of metaphorical expressions must be fully familiar with the specifics of such a translation, be aware of the complexity of the translation of figurativeness and be able to perform their translation work in a quality manner.
References:
- Newmark, P. A Textbook of Translation / P. Newmark. — Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2008. — 311 c. С. 104–111.
- Aspects Of Metaphor. — Текст: электронный // Student Writing Center: [сайт]. — URL: https://www.studentwritingcenter.us/poetic-language/aspects-of-metaphor.html (дата обращения: 14.04.2022).
- Борковец, Н. И. Техническая метафора в художественной картине мира / Н. И. Борковец. — Текст: электронный // DisserCat: [сайт]. — URL: https://www.dissercat.com/content/tekhnicheskaya-metafora-v-khudozhestvennoi-kartine-mira-na-materiale-nemetskoi-prozy-xx-veka (дата обращения: 14.04.2022).
- Арнольд, И. В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для ВУЗов / И. В. Арнольд. — Москва: Флинта: Наука, 2002. — 382 c.
