The Harrird/Hari River Basin is a significant transboundary river that originates in Afghanistan and flows towards Iran before ultimately terminating in the Karrakum desert in Turkmenistan. Currently, there is a lack of a formal treaty or framework for cooperation among Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkmenistan regarding the management of the river basin in question. The water resources of the basin serve as a crucial lifeline for the local communities, sustaining agriculture, livestock, and human settlements in the area. The basin is encountering a multitude of obstacles, such as inadequate water supply, alterations in climate patterns, ineffectual water governance methods, and political turbulence. The present study offers a comprehensive overview of the Harrirud River Basin, encompassing its hydrological, geographical, and ecological aspects. Additionally, the paper deals with the complexities of dam development, while highlighting the obstacles and prospects that arise in the pursuit of sustainable water resource management.
Keywords: Harrirud River Basin, Afghanistan, Iran, Salma Dam, Doosti Dam.
- Introduction
The Harirud River, spanning a length of 1,124 km, has its source in the elevated terrains of Afghanistan, situated at an altitude exceeding 3,000 metres from the sea level. The Harirud River originates from the Koh-i-Baba Mountains, located 250 km west of Kabul, and flows towards the west, covering a total drainage area of approximately 112,000 km2. The Kabgan River, a significant tributary of the Harirud River in Afghanistan, converges with the Harirud River approximately 70 km east of Herat. The two rivers flow in close proximity to one another. Subsequently, the route progresses towards the western region of Herat city and subsequently veers towards the north to traverse the Iranian territory, constituting an estimated distance of 160 kilometers that demarcates the political boundary between Afghanistan and Iran. Subsequently, upon its confluence with the Kashafrud River, the aforementioned body of water delineates approximately 170 kilometers of the geopolitical boundary separating Iran and Turkmenistan. This particular segment of the river, which serves as the official demarcation line between the two aforementioned nations, is commonly referred to as the Tejen River. Ultimately, the river facilitates irrigation of the Karakum desert in Turkmenistan before culminating in the aforementioned desert region (Frenken 2012). The geographical configuration of the Harirud Basin, along with the dams, primary gauge stations, and cities, is depicted schematically in Figure 1. The occurrence of precipitation, comprising of snow and rain, is primarily observed during the winter and spring seasons. The Afghan region exhibits an estimated mean annual precipitation of 236 mm, which is characterized by an uneven spatial distribution. According to Adhikary et al. (2011), the Harirud River experiences high floods between the months of March and June, and a significantly low flow from August to February.
Fig. 1: Harrirud / Hari River Basin map [source: Fadayi, 2005]
The Harirud River holds significant socio-economic importance for Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkmenistan. The hydrological resources of the river have a significant impact on the economy of the basin and the financial well-being of a substantial segment of the populace. Approximately half of the gross domestic product (GDP) within the basin is directly associated with the agricultural industry, with a particular emphasis on Afghanistan. The Harirud River plays a significant role in ensuring food and potable water security, particularly in the regions of Herat and Mashhad. The city of Mashhad in Iran, which attracts more than 20 million pilgrims and tourists annually, relies on this source to meet more than half of its domestic water needs (UNECE 2021). The populace of Afghanistan is heavily reliant on this communal water resource. Herat, a prominent urban centre in Afghanistan, holds promise for significant economic growth in the future. However, it has experienced instability due to factors such as drought, warfare, and domestic disputes. The protracted and destructive conflict in Afghanistan has led to its classification as a least developed country. This dire circumstance has compelled a significant number of individuals to migrate to other nations, with Iran being the primary destination (UNHCR 2013). Hence, the Harirud River and other water resources hold significant importance in providing stability and economic benefits to the populace of Afghanistan. Table 1 displays the population figures and growth rates of the riparian states residing in the basin. The Harirud Basin currently exhibits a distribution of irrigation networks along the river, primarily concentrated in the lower basin spanning from Herat in Afghanistan to Serakhs in Iran and Turkmenistan. The majority of extant irrigation systems in Herat are of a traditional nature. The irrigation networks exhibit an efficiency level ranging from 25 to 30 %. According to Farve and Kamal's (2004) research, Table 2 displays the irrigable land areas within the Harirud Basin across all riparian states.
Table 1
Significant Characteristics of Harrirud River Basin
[Source: Thomas et al., 2016]
- Methodology
The present review article employed a systematic literature review methodology to amalgamate extant scholarship on the geography, hydrology, ecology, uses, legal and policy frameworks, and management challenges pertaining to the Harriud River. The study employed research techniques that entailed the identification of pertinent scientific literature, official reports, and legal documentation. The present review article relied predominantly on peer-reviewed scientific articles, reports, and legal documents that were published within the timeframe of 2000 to 2022. The selection of sources was based on their pertinence to the themes addressed in the article, as well as their credibility and dependability. The data obtained from the chosen sources underwent analysis and synthesis through the application of a thematic methodology. The pertinent data was extracted from each source and systematically arranged based on the primary themes addressed in the article. The data was subjected to a comparative analysis to discern commonalities, divergences, and recurring themes. Ultimately, the data was amalgamated into a coherent storyline, furnishing a thorough depiction of the Harriud River and its administration.
- Result and Discussion
3.1. Dams constructed on the Harirud River Basin. Following the overthrow of the Taliban regime by a coalition led by the United States in 2001, various international funding agencies and partners directed their attention towards the promotion of humanitarian aid and infrastructure development within Afghanistan. According to Shroder (2016), a significant infrastructure development initiative involved the establishment of dams to facilitate access to uncontaminated and secure water resources for both domestic and agricultural purposes. This section will provide a succinct overview of the dam construction initiatives implemented in the upper Harirud River Basin.
3.1.1 Salma Dam. The Salma Dam, constructed with earth-rockfill material, stands at a height of 107.5 meters and serves the purposes of irrigation and hydro-power generation. The Chisht-e Sharif District in the Herat Province houses a dam that has a storage capacity of 650 million cubic meters. This dam is situated upstream of the Harirud River. According to Kumar et al. (2022), the dam possesses an energy generation capacity of 42 megawatts and is capable of releasing 63 cubic meters per second of water for the purpose of irrigation. The dam, which is situated at a distance of 150 km towards the east of Herat city, is the most extensive structure constructed on the upper Harirud river in Afghanistan. The construction of the dam was commenced in 1976 with the backing of the Indian and British governments, as reported by Amini et al. (2021). However, the project was suspended owing to civil turmoil. The construction phase recommenced in 1988 with the aid of technical expertise from the Indian Government. However, it was subsequently halted for nearly two decades owing to protracted internal strife. In 2004, during the initial presidential term of Hamid Karzai, India committed to providing USD 79 million in aid for the development of the Salma dam. In 2016, the construction of the dam was successfully concluded and subsequently inaugurated. According to Thomas and Warner (2015), the Afghan Government prioritized the construction of Salma Dam as a means of strengthening their bargaining position in future negotiations regarding the shared flow of Harirud River.
3.1.2. Pashdan Dam. The Pashdan Irrigation and Hydro-power Dam project was initiated in early 2011. The anticipated completion of the Pashdan dam project in 2013 was impeded by security concerns and the presence of Taliban forces in the area, ultimately resulting in an abrupt cessation of the project in 2016. According to Karimi (2021), the construction phase was recommenced in 2019. The Pashdan Dam is an earth-rock fill structure that spans 1100 meters in length and stands 42 meters tall. It has a catchment area of 1847 square kilometers. The Pashdan Dam possesses a storage capacity of 54 million cubic meters, facilitating the irrigation of 13,000 hectares of land. Upon the installation of two turbines, the dam will be capable of generating 2 megawatts of power. The primary objectives of the dam are to regulate flooding, produce hydroelectric power, achieve agricultural self-sufficiency in the upper Harirud region (Thomas and Warner, 2015), and manage the seasonal flow of the Karukh River, which is a significant tributary of the Harirud River. According to Omar's (2022) assertion, the Pashdan dam project has been subject to multiple disruptions by the Iranian Regime, yet a significant 85 % of the dam construction has been accomplished. The construction of the dam, which was originally projected to be finished by mid-2022, was halted subsequent to the Taliban's assumption of control (Karimi, 2021). This development has granted increased authority to riparian states downstream to harness the flow of the Harirud River.
Table 2
Dam projects in the upper Harrirud
Source: MEW. Presentation from Eng. Zia Gul Saljuki, National Water Conference, Kabul, 29 January 2013.
The nation of Afghanistan possesses the capacity to enhance its technological regulation of water resources in the Harirod region, thereby facilitating the augmentation of irrigation and the establishment of hydropower infrastructure to bolster the regional and national economic landscape. At present, Afghanistan utilizes around 40 % (equivalent to 628 million cubic meters or MCM) of the total surface water amounting to 1,570 MCM that passes through its geographical boundaries. Regarding groundwater, a mere 25 % of the overall supply, equivalent to 640 million cubic meters, is utilized. This presents an opportunity for Afghanistan to potentially facilitate additional development of water resources. Currently, there is a lack of storage capacity on the Afghan side. The limited capacity for irrigation development and hydropower production in Afghanistan is constrained by this factor. In order to realize its potential, Afghanistan is currently involved in executing the Salma dam project, which has been ongoing since 2004, as well as the Pashdan dam project, which has been underway since 2013. The newly proposed storage capacity would account for roughly 44 % of the yearly surface water supply, as indicated in Table 2. Among the total irrigated area of 213,900 hectares, an estimated 42,000 hectares are expected to experience improved irrigation accessibility. Furthermore, an additional 40,000 hectares are projected to be irrigated. Furthermore, a total of 44 megawatts of hydroelectric power would be produced. Afghanistan has the potential to augment its current utilization of approximately 628 MCM of surface water by an additional 584 MCM, resulting in a total of 1,212 MCM upon completion of the Salma project.
What are the potential effects of the Salma hydropower and irrigation project on the nations of Iran and Turkmenistan?
The implementation of extensive hydraulic initiatives in Afghanistan may result in a decrease in water flow along the Harirod, which has the potential to cause detrimental effects on Iran and, to a lesser degree, Turkmenistan. The reason for this phenomenon can be attributed to the comparatively significant reliance of the aforementioned nations on Afghanistan with regards to the accessibility of surface water, coupled with their restricted capacity to augment water extraction from domestic sources situated within the confines of the Harirod basin.
According to the available literature and research conducted thus far, it is projected that the Salma hydropower and irrigation project will result in a decrease of approximately 62 percent in the flow of the Harirod at the Iranian border, which would translate to a reduction of 58 percent at the Dosti dam level. By utilizing the time-constrained series data procured from the Afghan Government pertaining to the mean flow at the border and juxtaposing it with the irrigation water demand as presented by Adikhary et al., it can be inferred that the curtailment of flow resulting from the Salma project would amount to over 76 percent at the border.Adopting a cautious approach, it can be inferred that a reduction of 62 percent would result in a decrease in water availability for Iran and Turkmenistan at the Dosti dam from 507 MCM to 215 MCM.191 To clarify, the water supply in Iran is projected to decrease below its past utilization levels between the years 1926 and 1999. According to Adhikary et al. (2011), the projected water usage levels for the Harirud river indicate that Afghanistan would account for approximately 74 % of the usage, while Iran and Turkmenistan would each account for approximately 13 %. Currently, the river's water usage is distributed at approximately 40 %, 30 %, and 30 % among Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkmenistan, respectively. It should be noted that the aforementioned estimation does not take into account the potential impact, which is likely to be minimal, of the Pashdan dam project. In the event of such an occurrence, the transfer of water supply to the municipality of Mashhad would likely be guaranteed; however, it is probable that irrigation in Sarakhs would be significantly impacted. The most unfavorable projection would only provide a minimal assurance of the intended 150 million cubic meters of water supply to Mashhad, aimed at mitigating the crisis in the Kashfrood sub-basin. The impact on agriculture in Turkmenistan would be comparatively minimal. Upon the conclusion of the Salma project, there would be a remaining 215 MCM of water available for irrigation purposes, which would be sufficient to irrigate approximately 20,000 hectares of land, as opposed to the originally intended 30,000 hectares. Consequently, the Tejen river's contribution to the Karakum canal system would be negated. In this context, it can be observed that the influence of the aforementioned factor seems to be comparatively less noteworthy in comparison to its effects on Iran. This is due to the fact that the present allotment of the Tejen river towards the Karakum irrigation system is markedly restricted, constituting a mere 2 percent. It should be noted that the aforementioned estimation would require refinement and optimization via additional modeling investigations that explore various scenarios of equitable utilization between agriculture and hydropower. It is imperative that these studies incorporate a more comprehensive comprehension of regional agricultural practices, optimization of irrigation techniques, and the analysis of water return rates. It cannot be ruled out that forthcoming research may reveal that the Salma initiative has a lesser effect than originally anticipated, contingent upon the assessed scenarios and underlying presumptions.
3.1.3 Doosti Dam. According to Mozafari et al. (2012), the Doosti Dam is a joint project between the Ministry of Water and Land Reclamation of the Republic of Turkmenistan and the Khorasan Regional Water Board of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The dam has a height of 78 meters. The geographical location of the dam is situated at a distance of 180 kilometers towards the north-east direction from the city of Mashhad. According to Nagheeby and Warner (2018) research, the dam measures 655 meters in length and possesses a storage capacity of 1.25 billion cubic meters. The Doosti dam serves as a source of water supply for both Iran and Turkmenistan, catering to their respective requirements for irrigation and potable water. The city of Mashhad in Iran has experienced a rise in population, leading to the implementation of a unilateral decision to redirect the downstream flow of the Harirud River by constructing a pipeline spanning 150 kilometers.
3.2. Hydrology
The hydrology of the Harriud River is impacted by the topographical features of its mountainous source and the arid lower stretches. The hydrological regime of the river is predominantly sustained by the thawing of snow and glaciers during the spring and early summer months, and by precipitation during the late summer and autumn seasons. The river is known to convey substantial quantities of sediment, as evidenced by an approximate yearly sediment load of 11 million tons. The anticipated impact of climate change on the hydrology of the river is expected to result in increased occurrences of both floods and droughts, while also diminishing the overall water supply of the river, particularly in the summer season.
3.3. Ecology
The ecological significance of the Harriud River is attributed to its diverse range of flora and fauna, as well as its role as a migratory pathway for avian and other animal species. The river sustains a diverse array of flora and fauna, encompassing fish, amphibians, invertebrates, and riparian vegetation. Nevertheless, the river is facing a significant challenge due to the detrimental effects of pollution and the destruction of its natural habitat. The presence of heavy metals and pesticides in the river has been attributed to industrial activities and agricultural runoff. Furthermore, the implementation of dams and irrigation schemes has modified the course and hydrometric characteristics of the river, thereby impacting the ecological niches and biota of the river.
3.4. Uses
The Harriud River holds significant value as a crucial resource for agricultural, industrial, and domestic purposes within the surrounding area. The water from the river is utilized for agricultural purposes, including the irrigation of crops such as cotton, wheat, and rice, as well as for industrial applications such as oil and gas production. The river serves as a source of water for both urban and rural areas, catering to domestic needs. The divergent applications of water resources have resulted in disputes regarding water distribution, particularly in periods of aridity.
3.5. Legal and Policy Frameworks
The Harriud River's management and protection are subject to a multifaceted array of legal and policy frameworks, both domestically and globally. The frameworks in question encompass fundamental principles of international water law, including but not limited to the Helsinki Rules and the UN Watercourses Convention. Additionally, they incorporate the legal and policy frameworks of the nations traversed by the river. Nonetheless, the execution and imposition of these frameworks are frequently restricted, resulting in insufficient administration and safeguarding of the river.
3.6. Challenges and Opportunities
The Harriud River is confronted with a multitude of obstacles that are associated with climate change, pollution, habitat degradation, and competing interests. The aforementioned difficulties are further exacerbated by insufficient governance and safeguarding structures, restricted fiscal means, and unsettled political conditions within the locality. Nonetheless, there exist prospects for enhancing the administration and safeguarding of the river. These include heightened collaboration among the countries bordering the river, enhanced governance and regulation, and allocation of resources towards sustainable water management methodologies.
The Harriud River is an important natural asset in Central Asia, serving as a source of water for agricultural, industrial, and residential purposes, while also sustaining a variety of ecosystems and biodiversity. To sum up, its significance cannot be overstated. The river is encountering a multitude of obstacles associated with climate change, contamination, degradation of natural habitats, and competing applications. The successful management and preservation of the river necessitates enhanced collaboration among the countries that share its banks, better governance and regulation, and the allocation of resources towards sustainable water management techniques.
It is imperative to acknowledge the fundamental origins of these obstacles, which encompass the imprudent utilization of water resources, the contamination of the river due to industrial and agricultural activities, and the inadequacy of efficient administration and implementation of legal and policy frameworks. The attainment of sustainable management and protection of the Harriud River necessitates the collaboration of all stakeholders, comprising governments, local communities, non-governmental organizations, and international organizations.
The implementation of integrated water resources management (IWRM) approaches could be a viable solution for enhancing the management and safeguarding of the river. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is a comprehensive methodology for managing water resources that considers the interrelated social, economic, and environmental dimensions of water, while emphasizing the importance of stakeholder collaboration. The implementation of an Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) approach can potentially enhance the coordination and cooperation among the riparian nations of the Harriud River. This can lead to a reduction in conflicts related to water allocation and the promotion of sustainable water use and management practices.
The implementation of nature-based solutions (NBS) presents a viable opportunity for enhancing the management and safeguarding of the Harriud River. Natural-Based Solutions (NBS) refer to methodologies that leverage natural systems and processes to tackle various societal issues, including but not limited to water resource management, climate change mitigation, and biodiversity preservation. The reinstatement of riparian flora along the riverine margins has the potential to enhance the quality of water, mitigate erosion, and furnish a conducive environment for fauna. The execution of Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) can yield additional advantages, including enhanced soil quality, sequestration of carbon, and leisure prospects for nearby societies.
The effective management and preservation of the Harriud River is a multifaceted and demanding matter that necessitates the collaboration and synchronization of all involved parties. Achieving efficient management and safeguarding of the river necessitates a multifaceted strategy that encompasses the adoption of integrated water resources management and nature-based solutions, alongside the execution and reinforcement of legal and policy frameworks. The safeguarding and sustainable administration of the Harriud River would yield advantages not only for the local populace and ecosystems, but also for the worldwide endeavors towards attaining water security and sustainable development.
- Conclusion
Globally, transboundary waters have always posed a challenge, especially in recent years when freshwater resource scarcity and population growth have made this commodity a significant bargaining chip for governments. In light of this, the majority of experts predict that there will be major conflicts over water resources in the future years. In the twenty-first century, the conditions for the emergence of the water war will progressively materialize.
The review article has highlighted the urgent need for cooperation and coordination among stakeholders in order to accomplish sustainable river management and protection. Adopting integrated water resources management strategies and nature-based solutions can provide effective tools for addressing challenges and promoting sustainable use and management practices. The review article has also emphasized the significance of effective legal and policy frameworks that can provide a solid foundation for the river's management and protection.
In addition, the article calls for enhanced preservation and management of the Harriud River and its resources. The article emphasizes the significance of collaborative efforts among stakeholders to promote sustainable water use and management practices, safeguard the ecological integrity of the river, and ensure equitable access to water resources for all. We can assure the continued availability of vital water resources in the Harrirud River Basin by implementing effective strategies and solutions.
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