Since 2001, India has established stronger diplomatic relations with Afghanistan. India's efforts to restructure and rehabilitate war-torn Afghanistan have been a significant aspect of the bilateral relationship between India and Afghanistan. The provision of Indian development assistance remains a crucial factor in the broader socio-economic advancement of Afghanistan, encompassing the construction of infrastructure, establishment of institutions, and enhancement of human resource capabilities. This concise piece of writing provides insight into India's development assistance program towards Afghanistan, which ranks as the fifth largest bilateral aid program to Afghanistan and the most extensive program originating from any country within the region. This paper explains (1) Afghanistan-India historical relation; (2) Large, medium and small projects implemented by India in Afghanistan; and (3) Dams funded and constructed by India in Afghanistan.
Keywords: Afghanistan, India, Friendship, Dam development, Salma Dam.
- Introduction
Afghanistan has been a significant area of interest for Indian regional policy due to its strategic location, which borders Iran, Pakistan, and the Central Asian States following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Since 1947, India has maintained amicable relations with Afghanistan, which were further reinforced by the ratification of the «Friendship Treaty» in 1950. India entered into several agreements and protocols with pro-Soviet regimes in Afghanistan with the aim of fostering cooperation and augmenting Indian influence. The incursion of the Soviet Union into Afghanistan in 1979 presented an additional prospect for India to enhance its diplomatic ties with Afghanistan. Between 1979 and 1999, India augmented its investments in developmental initiatives in Afghanistan by engaging in collaborative efforts pertaining to industrial, irrigation, and hydro-electric projects (Fahima, 2007).
The emergence of the Afghan Mujahideen in response to the Soviet invasion, with backing from Pakistan and the US, culminated in the withdrawal of Soviet troops and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Subsequently, the Mujahideen overthrew the pro-Soviet regime of Najibullah in Afghanistan in April 1992, leading to the establishment of a new government. This development marked the initial occurrence of diplomatic isolation and reduced Indian influence in Afghanistan, given India's amicable ties with the deposed pro-Soviet administration of Najibullah. Subsequently, in 1992, following the establishment of a predominantly non-Pashtun government by Burhanuddin Rabbani, India resumed its involvement in Afghanistan and extended humanitarian and technical aid to the Afghan government.
The ascension of the Taliban in Afghanistan and the subsequent ousting of the Rabbani administration in September of 1996 served to further diminish the impact of Indian involvement in Afghanistan. India refrained from acknowledging the Taliban regime due to its perceived inclination towards Pakistan, leading to the cessation of diplomatic relations and the closure of the Indian embassy in September of 1996. In this particular epoch, the non-Pashtun factions that were in opposition to the Taliban regime established the Northern Alliance and assumed control over regions situated in the northern part of Afghanistan, which shared borders with the Central Asian States of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. India established connections with the Northern Alliance as a means of preserving its sway in Afghanistan and countering Pakistan's backing of the Taliban administration. According to Swami (2001), the Northern Alliance's defense was reinforced by India through the provision of high-altitude warfare equipment valued at $10 million, facilitated by its Research and Analysis Wing (RAW). Additionally, Indian defense advisers offered technical guidance to the Northern Alliance.
The terrorist attacks that occurred in the United States on September 11, 2001, and the subsequent international campaign against terrorism, including the launch of «Operation Enduring Freedom» by the United States against the Taliban regime in Afghanistan in November 2001, presented India with a chance to advance its foreign policy objectives of achieving regional hegemony and establishing itself as a global power. Following the events of 9/11, India heightened its endeavors to reinstate its sway in Afghanistan, which had been relegated to a secondary position subsequent to the formation of a government led by the Taliban in 1996 (Rahul, 2005).
Following the events of September 11th, the United States launched a global campaign against terrorism, including a military operation against the Taliban regime in November 2001. This development proved advantageous for India, as it presented an opportunity for the country to reassert its influence in Afghanistan (Dixit 2002). Indian endeavors in Afghanistan following the 9/11 incident have primarily centered around three key areas: assuming a significant role in the reconstruction and economic advancement efforts, executing projects of varying scales, and enhancing capacity building.
- Methodology
The objective of this review article is to conduct a thorough examination of the partnership between Afghanistan and India, with particular emphasis on the role of development cooperation in enhancing the relationship between the two nations. To attain this objective, a comprehensive review of pertinent literature was systematically carried out.
The present review employed specific inclusion criteria, which encompassed the following: (1) studies that scrutinized the Afghanistan-India partnership in the context of development cooperation, (2) studies that were disseminated in peer-reviewed journals within the time frame of 2004 to 2022, and (3) studies that were composed in the English language. The exclusion criteria employed were: (1) studies that lacked a specific focus on the Afghanistan-India partnership, (2) studies that did not prioritize the examination of development cooperation as a key factor contributing to the partnership, and (3) studies that were not published in peer-reviewed journals.
The research that satisfied the established criteria for inclusion was subjected to a qualitative content analysis methodology. The study involved the extraction of data from each article, which encompassed various aspects such as the author(s), year of publication, research design, methodology, findings, and conclusions. The data were synthesized and organized thematically in accordance with the study's objectives. The study identified recurring themes from the collected data and presented significant findings in a narrative style. The present study employed a methodical search strategy and a content analysis approach to offer an all-encompassing examination of the partnership between Afghanistan and India, and the role of development cooperation in enhancing the bilateral relations between the two nations. Notwithstanding certain constraints, this analysis furnishes a significant asset for decision-makers, academics, and professionals who are keen on comprehending the intricacies of the Afghanistan-India alliance and the significance of developmental collaboration in this association.
- Results and Discussions
3.1. Large and Medium Scale Projects : The Indian government has initiated diverse medium and large-scale infrastructure projects in Afghanistan as part of its efforts to contribute to the stabilization of the country. Several noteworthy infrastructure initiatives have been undertaken, including the erection of the Afghan Parliament in Kabul, the 218 km Zaranj-Delaram roadway that was constructed and financed by India (which interconnects with Afghanistan's ring road at Delaram and the Iranian border at Zaranj, and subsequently connects to an Iranian highway that leads to the Iranian port of Chabahar), a 220kV DC transmission line extending from Pul-e-Khumri to Kabul, and the Afghan-India Friendship Dam (also referred to as Salma Dam) that generates electricity in Herat province. In 2015, the Afghan Parliament and the Afghan-India Friendship Dam were both finalized. The inauguration of the dam was carried out by Prime Minister Modi on June 4th, 2016, as reported by the (Ministry of External Affairs). In addition, Modi finalized talks regarding the augmentation of Iran's Chabahar port with Indian development funding during his trip to Iran in May 2016. During the same period, Afghan President Ashraf Ghani undertook a trip to Iran with the sole objective of signing a trilateral accord with India and Iran aimed at facilitating the advancement of Chabahar port. The aforementioned port is intended to function as a central point for the transportation of goods to Afghanistan and Central Asia, while also facilitating a connection between India and Western Asia (Nanda, 2016).
3.2. Small Development Projects Scheme: The Small Development Projects (SDPs) scheme has been a pivotal aspect of India's developmental collaboration with Afghanistan. The Indian government has initiated over 200 projects in various fields such as public health, education, community infrastructure development, agriculture, and vocational training, among others, through this program. These projects have been designed to have short gestation periods. The SDP initiative has been implemented in a tripartite manner, with the sanctioning of 92 projects by the Indian Government at the onset of the third phase, coinciding with the visit of Afghanistan's Chief Executive, Dr. Abdullah, to India in 2016 (Embassy of India, Kabul 2016).
3.3. Technical Cooperation and Capacity Building: The Indian government has been providing training to Afghan citizens with the aim of promoting skill development and enhancing capacity building. The cooperation of New Delhi in these areas primarily involves comprehensive vocational training programs, scholarships, and other training incentives under its important training programs and schemes. It is noteworthy that these efforts are aimed at enhancing the skills and knowledge of individuals. The training programs and schemes offered by India include the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program, the India-Afghanistan Fellowship Program which provides Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) scholarships, as well as the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) scholarships. Annually, Afghan nationals are provided with roughly 675 training slots and 1,000 scholarships through the ITEC and ICCR scholarships, respectively. Furthermore, India has been offering a total of 674 ICAR scholarships on a yearly basis from 2012–13 to 2020–21 (MEA, 2015). In 2015, the Indian government made a commitment to prolong its ICCR scholarship program until 2020. Additionally, it provided an additional 500 scholarships to the offspring of Afghan Security Forces martyrs, enabling them to attend schools and colleges in both Afghanistan and India. India has made a substantial investment in technical cooperation and capacity building in Afghanistan by committing to provide more than 2,000 annual training slots and scholarship (Haidari, 2015).
India has been actively engaged in enhancing Afghanistan's education sector through infrastructural development, as well as the provision of training and scholarship opportunities to Afghan nationals. Additionally, India has collaborated with civil society and the private sector to further this objective. An essential illustration of this form of engagement pertains to the functioning of the Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA), which has been operational in Afghanistan since 2008. SEWA has imparted training to over 3,000 Afghan women in domains such as sewing and food processing. Another noteworthy example is Pune-based Sarhad, which has facilitated educational exchanges, including the provision of scholarships for Afghan students to pursue their studies in India (Gareth, 2015).
Moreover, concerning the funding of Afghanistan's educational infrastructure, the Indian government has consistently been a leading contributor. One of the early initiatives pursued by India in post-Taliban Afghanistan was the rehabilitation of Habibia School located in Kabul, which was carried out in 2003. Subsequent to the aforementioned initiatives, various infrastructural endeavors were undertaken in the education sector of Afghanistan. These included significant large-scale projects such as the establishment of the Afghanistan National Agricultural Science and Technology University in February 2014, which received Indian investment amounting to a maximum of US$ 8 million (Gareth 2015).
Fig.1. Scholarships and training program offered by India to Afghanistan [Source: IDCR, 2016]
3.4. Dams funded by India in Afghanistan: The Salma Dam, also known as the Afghan-India Friendship Dam, is situated on the Hari River in the province of Herat in western Afghanistan. It serves both as a hydroelectric and irrigation dam. According to the Indian Express (2016), the dam was officially opened in June 2016 and was constructed with the aid of India as a benevolent gesture to the citizens of Afghanistan.
The dam's construction was a collaborative effort between India and Afghanistan, wherein India predominantly contributed towards the funding and technical know-how. According to BNA (2017), the primary purpose of the dam's design was to facilitate irrigation for a vast expanse of farmland spanning over 75,000 hectares in the region. Additionally, the dam was intended to generate approximately 42 MW of hydroelectric power to cater to the energy needs of the local populace.
The Afghan-India Friendship Dam is regarded as a significant infrastructure undertaking executed by India in Afghanistan, and is perceived as an emblematic representation of the robust relationship between the two nations. The erection of the dam encountered various obstacles, such as security risks posed by Taliban insurgents and technical complexities arising from the rugged topography of the locality.
The inauguration of the dam was widely commemorated in Afghanistan, with a significant number of individuals perceiving it as an emblem of optimism and advancement for the nation. The government of Afghanistan has conveyed appreciation to India for its assistance in constructing the dam, emphasizing the significance of such infrastructure initiatives in advancing development and stability in Afghanistan.
Fig. 2: Afghan-India Friendship Dam Project [Source: IDCR 2016]
India has pledged to construct the Shahtoot Dam, which is anticipated to be the second largest water infrastructure project. The estimated cost of this project is approximately US$ 236 million. According to Ramachandran (2018), there are plans to construct a dam on the Kabul River in the Char Asiab District of Kabul province. Upon completion of the dam, it will serve the functions of potable water supply, hydroelectric power generation, and irrigation. Additionally, the erection of the aforementioned dam has elicited apprehension from Pakistan regarding water depletion as a downstream nation, thereby exacerbating the already existing tensions between the two riparian states (Ramachandran, 2018).
- Conclusion
The bilateral ties between India and Afghanistan are deeply rooted in their shared history and cultural affinities. India has consistently been a reliable collaborator in the endeavors to reconstruct and advance the development of Afghanistan. India's primary objective in providing development assistance to Afghanistan is to enhance the capacities and capabilities of Afghan citizens and institutions in the areas of governance and public service delivery. This assistance is also aimed at promoting the development of socio-economic infrastructure, ensuring the safety and security of Afghan citizens, and supporting livelihoods.
India and Afghanistan have mutually consented to identify products and measures that can potentially improve the bilateral trade. This move has been taken to reassert the significance of connectivity and unrestricted transport and transit access for Afghanistan. The assistance provided by India is aligned with the requirements and preferences of the Afghan government and populace. Collaborative efforts are made with the Afghan government to carry out initiatives, and a diverse array of projects are implemented throughout Afghanistan. Both parties are pursuing a trajectory that is characterized by a strong sense of ambition and a forward-looking approach that is focused on the needs and aspirations of the next generation.
The implementation of significant developmental aid initiatives by India in Afghanistan, including the Afghan-India Friendship Dam, has enhanced India's standing as a development collaborator. However, as evidenced by this particular case study, there is a need for improvement in the overall delivery of development assistance projects by Indian aid. The construction of the Afghan-India Friendship Dam presents a valuable opportunity for examination and education, as similar issues of excessive expenses, insufficient funding allocation for monitoring, evaluation, and accountability, and general project postponements have afflicted other endeavors. This project has yielded several constructive insights, such as India's active involvement with the indigenous populace, comprehension of the regional political landscape, the team's adeptness in addressing challenges, and the commitment of Indian government officials to collaborate with their Afghan counterparts.
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