The pursuit of advanced functional textiles has led to significant interest in the application of nanotechnology to enhance the intrinsic properties of cotton fabrics. This article reviews recent advancements in the incorporation of various nanomaterials, specifically metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, to bestow cotton fabrics with durable antimicrobial properties. Nanomaterials such as silver, copper oxide, and zinc oxide are highlighted for their efficacy against a broad spectrum of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative strains. Diverse methods of nanoparticle binding to cotton, including impregnation, pad-dry-cure, in-situ synthesis, electrospinning, and chemical modification, are discussed, each presenting its advantages and limitations. Studies illustrating the successful application of nanoparticles for medical textiles, notably in antibacterial treatments and biosensing, are also examined. The environmental and safety considerations associated with the use of such nanoparticles in textiles are critically analyzed, underscoring the need for sustainable practices. This review synthesizes the current literature on nanoparticle-treated cotton fabrics and envisages future directions in medical textiles, which aim not only to prevent bacterial infections but also to monitor patient health conditions, thereby promising a significant impact on smart healthcare solutions.
Introduction to Textile Industry and Cotton Fabric
The textile industry has played a vital role in human civilization for centuries, providing us with essential materials such as clothing and fabrics. The textile industry is one of the few sectors with a significant global demand. It plays a crucial role in the world economy through its contributions to industrial development, export revenue, and employment opportunities. According to a chapter titled «Textile Fiber Manufacturing/Processing and the Environment» in the book «Sustainable Growth and Development in a Regional Economy», it is estimated that the textile and clothing industry is one of the largest industrial sectors globally [1].
Textile materials commonly used in daily life create an ideal environment for microorganisms, particularly bacteria, to thrive due to their extensive surface area and capacity to retain moisture. The presence of harmful bacteria not only compromises the integrity of the textiles but also results in unpleasant odors and poses a significant risk to public health. [2] Pathogenic bacteria found on fabric surfaces can lead to skin allergies and irritation upon direct contact with human skin, as well as more serious conditions like heart problems and pneumonia in certain instances. [3]
Cotton, the most abundant natural fiber derived from plants, is considered a fundamental material for both clothing and industrial uses. Comprising 88–95 % cellulose along with small amounts of pectin, wax, minerals, and some impurities, cotton possesses outstanding characteristics like strength, softness, absorbency, dyeing ability comfort and air permeability that make it crucial in the textile industry. The cellulose in cotton is made up of 1–4 β-D-glucan with particular 1,4-glycosidic linkages containing non-reducing and reducing end groups. [4].
Due to the reasons described above, various methods have been developed to enhance the antimicrobial properties of cotton fabric by binding it with nanomaterials and antibiotics.
Introduction to Nanotechnology in Cotton Fabric Enhancement
Nanotechnology has emerged to be a significant field in various applications for manipulating science at the nano-regime to develop and produce products with exclusive properties [5]. In brief, nanotechnology can be defined as the science and engineering of designing, synthesizing and characterizing of nanomaterials with exceptional functional properties, compared to their bulk counterparts [6]. Further, nanotechnology is not only emerging in single scientific discipline but also significant in interdisciplinary science, such as chemistry, physics, materials science and biology. Thus, synthesized nanomaterials are highly beneficial in various fields, including energy storage, medicine, electronics, and textiles [7].
To meet the growing demand for cotton and improve its quality, research has focused on enhancing its properties using nanotechnology [8]. Nanotechnology is the manipulation and control of materials on a molecular and atomic level, resulting in unique properties and applications. These materials are engineered at the nanoscale, typically between 1 and 100 nanometers, allowing for precise control over their size, shape, and composition to achieve desired functionalities [9].
In recent years, the use of nanomaterials and antibiotics to create antimicrobial properties in cotton fabric has gained significant attention. This innovative approach involves the binding of nanomaterials such as silver oxide or copper oxide nanoparticles and antibiotics onto cotton fabric, thereby providing it with antimicrobial properties. Several studies have examined different methods of binding nanomaterials and antibiotics to cotton fabric to achieve effective antimicrobial properties.
One method commonly used is the use of aqueous suspensions of metal/metal oxide nanoparticles. These metal oxide nanoparticles have easy access to various parts of the cotton plant through its transportation system, resulting in improved growth and production of cotton fiber. For instance, a study conducted by researchers (source 1) demonstrated that the distribution and accumulation of metal oxide nanoparticles in cotton plants significantly influenced various plant growth-promoting factors, leading to improved cotton yields. Most commonly used metal oxides in these applications are silver, zinc, and copper oxide nanoparticles [10]. These metals are used due to their excellent antimicrobial properties.
The Role of Silver Nanoparticles in Cotton Fabric Binding
Silver nanoparticles have become a popular choice for enhancing the antimicrobial properties of cotton fabric. There are around fifty methods reported in the literature for binding silver nanoparticles to cotton fabric to create antimicrobial properties.
The structure of silver nanoparticles allows for effective interaction with bacteria, leading to their inhibition and even destruction. The mechanism of action of silver nanoparticles involves the release of silver ions, which have a toxic effect on bacterial cells by interfering with their vital functions and disrupting their cell membranes. [11] The release of silver ions from the silver nanoparticles creates a hostile environment for bacteria on the surface of the cotton fabric, preventing their growth and proliferation [10].
Szczepanowicz and colleagues synthesized silver nanoparticles using a chemical method involving hydrazine, formalin, and ascorbic acid. The resulting nanoparticles were found to be approximately 20 nm in size and exhibited significant antibacterial properties against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria [12]
Thi and colleagues conducted research on the antibacterial properties of silver nanoparticles produced with sodium citrate as a reducing agent. They assessed its effectiveness in combating bacteria in shrimp pond wastewater, finding that nanoscale silver particles exhibit significant bactericidal effects against E. coli. [13]
Guzmán et al. also examined the antibacterial properties of nanosized silver against E. coli, P. aeruginosa and methicillin-resistant S. aureus. They investigated the impact of different concentrations of silver precursor, stabilizing agent, and reducing agent on the effectiveness of silver nanoparticles against microbes. The results from the antibacterial tests indicated that smaller sized silver nanoparticles (9 and 11 nm) had a greater size-dependent ability to kill bacteria. [14]
Titanium Oxide Application for Antimicrobial Cotton Textiles
Titanium dioxide is a widely recognized substance, particularly in industrial use, because of its notable durability and unique optical and electrical characteristics. These properties typically manifest in various forms like rutile, anatase, and brookite. Additionally, TiO2 has found numerous uses across environmental preservation, civil engineering, healthcare, farming, food production as well as the cosmetic industry [15].
TiO2 nanoparticles have been applied in the textile industry for their antimicrobial, self-cleaning, UV-light protection, mothproofing and flame retardancy properties (Derakhshan et al., 2018b). Recently, researchers developed TiO2 nanoparticles using a two-step sol-gel and hydrothermal method to coat them onto cotton fabric surfaces. They then examined their effectiveness against common bacterial strains. The findings indicated that the TiO2-treated cotton fabrics demonstrated strong antibacterial activity against both E. coli and S. aureus species. [16].
Perelshtein and colleagues illustrated significant antibacterial effects against E. coli and S. aureus by applying TiO2 nanoparticles onto cotton fabric surfaces. In a separate investigation, Sarathi et al. synthesized TiO2 nanoparticles using urea as a reaction medium and coated them on 100 % cotton as well as 45/55 % polyester/cotton fabrics. The treated fabrics were tested for potential antibacterial activity against gram-positive S. aureus and gram-negative K. pneumoniae bacteria, revealing that they displayed strong antibacterial properties with an efficacy of 85 % and 64 % for the pure cotton fabric, and an efficiency of 93 % and 73 % for the polyester/cotton blend fabric against S.aureus and K.pneumonia erespectively [17].
Prorokova et al. found that while TiO2-treated polyester fabric showed no antimicrobial effects, using silver-doped TiO2 nanoparticles with enhanced photocatalytic activity resulted in effective antimicrobial performance, successfully impeding the growth of microbes on the fabric. The study noted that incorporating silver as a dopant increased the photochemical activity of TiO2, leading to its ability to inhibit microbial growth on polyester fabric. [18]
Copper Oxide Application for Antimicrobial Cotton Textiles
In addition to previously discussed materials, researchers have also explored the use of copper oxide nanoparticles for creating antimicrobial cotton textiles. Copper oxide nanoparticles have shown promising antimicrobial properties when incorporated into cotton fabric.
Copper oxide nanoparticles stand out as a highly functional transition metal oxide compared to other metal oxide nanoparticles due to their 2 eV band gap. They exhibit notable characteristics including strong electrochemical activity, a high specific surface area, suitable redox potential, and exceptional stability in solutions. [19]
Ahamed et al. produced CuO nanoparticles using the co-precipitation method and assessed their effectiveness in controlling various bacterial strains including E. coli, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae, E. faecalis, Shigella flexneri, S. typhimurium, Proteus vulgaris and S. aureus. The findings indicated that the CuO nanoparticles displayed strong antibacterial properties against all tested pathogens; however, they were particularly toxic to E.coli and E.faecalis while showing lower toxicity towards K.pneumoniae. This study suggests that the synthesized CuO nanoparticles have the potential for wide-ranging antibacterial effects [20].
CuO nanoparticle surface coating on textile fabrics has seen a significant rise in usage to enhance the fabric's antibacterial properties, effectively reducing the transmission of diseases through contact with the fabrics. [21]
Hasan prepared nanoscale CuO using a chemical method and applied it to 100 % woven cotton fabric through the pad-dry-cure technique. The findings demonstrated that the fabric treated with CuO nanoparticles displayed increased antibacterial properties against E. coli and S. aureus, unlike the fabric treated with bulk CuO which showed no activity. Moreover, after washing, the nanoparticle-treated fabrics maintained 86.28 % effectiveness against E.coli and 94.05 % effectiveness against S.aureus [22].
Zinc Oxide Application for Antimicrobial Cotton Textiles
Zinc oxide is a highly promising metal oxide that can be engineered into various nanostructures, including nanotubes, nanobelts, nanowires, and intricate formations. It exhibits distinct properties suitable for semiconductor applications in optics and can be developed as piezoelectric materials. The exceptional characteristics of ZnO nanoparticles find extensive use in diverse fields such as nano-electronics or nano-optical devices, cosmetics, energy storage, and nanosensors.
One notable application of ZnO nanoparticles is their use in enhancing the antimicrobial properties of cotton textiles [23]. A study conducted explored the application of ZnO nanoparticles on cotton fabrics for antimicrobial purposes. The researchers used a layer-by-layer molecular self-assembly technique to deposit ZnO nanoparticle-based multilayer films on cationized woven cotton fabrics. The cotton fabrics were pretreated with 2,3-epoxypropyltrimethylammonium chloride to create a cationic surface charge and improve the adhesion of the ZnO nanoparticles. The results showed that the ZnO-coated fabrics exhibited excellent antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Furthermore, the coated fabrics demonstrated enhanced protection against UV radiation, making them suitable for applications where both antimicrobial and UV-blocking properties are desired. [24]
Incorporating Antibiotics into Cotton Fabrics for Antimicrobial Properties
In addition to the use of metal oxide nanoparticles, another method for creating antimicrobial properties in cotton fabric is by incorporating antibiotics. Researchers have explored the use of antibiotics such as triclosan and gentamicin to enhance the antimicrobial properties of cotton fabrics. One study focused on the incorporation of triclosan, an antibacterial agent, into cotton fabric using a pad-dry-cure method. The results showed that the triclosan-treated cotton fabric had effective antimicrobial activity against E. coli and S. aureus bacteria. Another study investigated the incorporation of gentamicin, an antibiotic, into cotton fabric using a biodegradable polymer carrier system. The study found that the gentamicin-treated cotton fabric exhibited significant antimicrobial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including S. aureus and E. coli. Furthermore, research has shown that the antimicrobial properties of cotton fabric can be enhanced by incorporating antibiotics such as triclosan and gentamicin. [25]
Review of Recent Studies on Antimicrobial Cotton Technologies
This review shows several most important methods found in the literature for binding silver nanoparticles to cotton fabric:
1. Impregnation Method: In this method, cotton fabric is treated with nano-silver colloid through impregnation [26]. This method works by immersing the cotton fabric in a solution containing silver oxide nanoparticles, allowing for the nanoparticles to penetrate and bind to the fabric fibers. The impregnation method has been widely used due to its simplicity and effectiveness in achieving antimicrobial properties. A study conducted by researchers (source 2) investigated the impregnation method and found that the silver-treated cotton fabric showed a high bacterial reduction rate of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli even after multiple home laundering conditions.
2. Pad-Dry-Cure Method: This method involves the padding of cotton fabric with a solution containing silver nanoparticles, followed by drying and curing to ensure the binding of the nanoparticles to the fabric. A study (source 5) examined the pad-dry-cure method and found that the silver oxide nanoparticles effectively bound to the cotton fabric, resulting in a strong antibacterial activity against a wide range of pathogens.
3. In-situ Synthesis Method: This method involves the direct synthesis of silver oxide nanoparticles on the surface of the cotton fabric. Researchers have developed techniques to synthesize silver oxide nanoparticles directly on the cotton fabric using a variety of methods, including chemical reduction and electrochemical deposition. These in-situ synthesis methods allow for precise control over the size and distribution of the nanoparticles on the fabric, resulting in enhanced antimicrobial properties.
4. Electrospinning Method: This method utilizes electrostatic forces to create nanofibers of cotton fabric infused with silver oxide nanoparticles. Electrospinning involves the use of a high voltage to create a charged jet of polymer solution or melt, which is then collected as fibers on a collector plate. During the electrospinning process, silver oxide nanoparticles can be incorporated into the polymer solution or melt, resulting in nanofibers with embedded silver oxide nanoparticles. Efficiency of this method can be improved by optimizing the electrospinning parameters, such as voltage and flow rate, to achieve a uniform distribution of nanoparticles within the cotton nanofibers.
5. Chemical Modification Method: This method involves the chemical treatment of cotton fabric with various compounds, such as quaternary ammonium salts or silane coupling agents, followed by the binding of silver oxide nanoparticles. One study (source 3) investigated the chemical treatment of cotton fibers with glycidyltrimethylammonium chloride and found that the treatment improved the binding of silver nanoparticles to the fabric and enhanced its antimicrobial properties against Staphylococcus aureus bacteria.
These examples demonstrate the various methods used to bind nanomaterials, such as silver nanoparticles, to cotton fabric in order to enhance its antimicrobial properties. By utilizing these methods, researchers have been able to create cotton fabrics with strong antibacterial activity against a wide range of pathogens.
Conclusion
The advent of nanotechnology has transformed the outlook on materials utilized in various industries, and it has garnered considerable attention in the textile industry for creating smart textiles. The antimicrobial properties, particularly the ability to combat bacteria, of nanoparticles are increasingly important for preventing bacterial proliferation on fabric surfaces and safeguarding them from bacterial-related harm. Techniques such as surface modification and fabric finishing prove advantageous for effectively applying antibacterial nanoparticles onto fabric surfaces, ultimately reducing their release into the environment while maintaining long-term antibacterial effectiveness. Recently, there is widespread consideration for incorporating antibacterial nanoparticles into medical textiles, gloves, bandages, and socks to minimize bacterial growth. Additionally, biosensing nanoparticles can also be integrated into fabrics using similar methods employed with embedding antibacterial nanoparticles to monitor disease conditions—a valuable feature for patients. Smart textiles equipped with both antibacterial capabilities and disease monitoring potential are poised to make a significant impact in the future of medical textile industries by controlling bacteria-induced infections and overseeing patient health conditions.
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