Syntactic structure of positional expressions in Chinese and Russian



Positional structures, also known as positional phrases, are composed of locative words combined with other words. They are frequently used in daily life to indicate not only relatively easy-to-understand concepts such as time, place, and scope but also abstract, conditional, and processual meanings. This study explores the syntactic constructions used in Chinese and Russian for expressing positional relationships. It reveals that although both languages share many similarities in representing space, Chinese tends to emphasize surface-level locative relations, while Russian tends to conceptualize space more planarly. The visual form of Chinese characters provides unique advantages in expressing spatial concepts. Jin Tao points out that the core of spatial concepts in Chinese lies in the construction of «place.» In spatial expression, the Russian preposition «в» typically indicates «inside,» whereas in Chinese it often translates to «on,» reflecting different ways of expressing internal spatial relationships. In Chinese, «上» (shàng) does not merely denote «above» but also indicates relative position. Chinese learners may face challenges when learning the Russian prepositions «в» and «на» because «上» (shàng) and «里» (lǐ) in Chinese blur the boundaries between interior and upper positions. Finally, this study provides specific examples to illustrate the differences in positional expression between the two languages.

Keywords: positional words, preposition, Chinese, Russian, comparative analysis.

Positional orientation refers to the direction or orientation of an object or place relative to a reference frame. The concept of «positional orientation» is the same in both Russian and Chinese, serving as a fundamental notion to describe the mutual relationship between objects, locations, or directions in space. Both languages use specific vocabulary and expressions to identify and describe the four cardinal directions—east, west, south, and north—and the intermediate directions derived from them, such as northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest. For example:

Chinese: East (东, dōng), West (西, xī), South (南, nán), North (北, běi)

Intermediate directions: Northeast (东北, dōngběi), Southeast (东南, dōngnán), Southwest (西南, xīnán), Northwest (西北, xīběi)

Russian: East (восток, vostok), West (запад, zapad), South (юг, yug), North (север, sever)

Intermediate directions: Northeast (северо-восток, severo-vostok), Southeast (юго-восток, yugo-vostok), Southwest (юго-запад, yugo-zapad), Northwest (северо-запад, severo-zapad).

In addition to these cardinal and intermediate directions, both languages have corresponding terms to express «left» (左zuǒ, лево levo), «right» (右yòu, право pravo), «middle» (中间zhōngjiān, середина seredina), «around» (周围zhōuwéi, окрестности okrestnosti), «up» (上shàng, вверх, vyerkh), and «down» (下xià, вниз, vniz).

Although the concepts are the same, the actual usage in the two languages may differ due to factors such as language structure, cultural habits, and cognitive styles. For instance, Russian might involve specific preposition usage in expressing positional orientation, while Chinese relies more on word order and context understanding in describing spatial relationships. Furthermore, directional expression habits in specific contexts such as giving directions, navigation, and architectural layout may vary between the two languages. However, concerning the core concept of «positional orientation» both Russian and Chinese possess complete systems to accurately express spatial directions and positional relationships.

I. Ways of Expressing Positional Relations in Russian

In Russian, describing positional relations requires adherence to specific syntactic structures, which are closely associated with the case changes of nouns and the use of locative words, verbs, and spatial prepositions.

Chinese scholars have conducted relatively few studies on Russian spatial prepositions, focusing primarily on the structural and semantic aspects of Russian prepositions. Chen Guoting in his work «Psychological Basis and Semantic Distinctions of the Prepositions «в» and «на» with Place Nouns» provided a detailed description and analysis of the Russian prepositions «в» and «на». He noted that «although their meanings are similar, there are still some controversies regarding their usage in Russian» [1]. Chen Guoting believes that the semantic distinctions between the two lie in personal spatial concepts. Wang Zhijian in his work «Semantic Expansion Mechanism of Russian Spatial Prepositions» specifically studied the semantics of Russian spatial prepositions. He stated that «the primary semantic significance of major Russian spatial prepositions includes spatial starting point, spatial endpoint, direction, and location» [10].

Chen Guoting and Wang Zhijian conducted comprehensive semantic research, providing significant insights into the study of Russian spatial prepositions.

In the 1970s and 1980s, Russian linguists primarily focused on the semantic descriptions of individual spatial prepositions, including prepositions, adverbs, and adjectives related to space. Key monographs in this area include Н. И. Астафьева's «Предлоги в русском языке и особенности их употребления» (Prepositions in the Russian Language and Their Usage Characteristics) and В. С. Бондаренко's «Предлоги в современном русском языке» (Prepositions in Modern Russian). Russian scholar В. С. Бондаренко (1961) conducted specialized research on Russian prepositions. In his monograph, he wrote: «The most prominent, widespread, and diverse expressions in language pertain to spatial, temporal, and complement relations, the majority of which are expressed through ancient prepositions»... [14]. In this book, the author proposed a means of expressing «spatial relational meaning». The concept of spatial relations is also defined in В. С. Бондаренко's «Предлоги в современном русском языке» («Prepositions in Modern Russian»): «Spatial relations generally refer to the positional relationship between one object, action (event), or feature and another spatial object, i.e., the reference object» [14].

In modern Russian, spatial relations are typically expressed through noun phrases consisting of verbs and nouns with specific prepositions and case forms, as well as adverbs indicating location. Below is a detailed analysis of several basic syntactic structures used to express positional relations in Russian:

1. Direct Locative Adverbs

Locative adverbs used independently play a crucial role in Russian, helping speakers and listeners quickly and accurately understand positional relationships and directional instructions, making language expression more concise and fluent. Here are some examples:

1. где (where):

Used to inquire about the position of an object, person, or event. It is a very general interrogative adverb applicable in various contexts.

Example: Где мои ключи? (Where are my keys?)

Где находится ближайшая станция метро? (Where is the nearest subway station?)

2. куда (where to):

Used to ask about or indicate the destination, emphasizing the direction of movement.

Example: Завтра мы едем к морю, знаешь, куда? (Tomorrow we are going to the sea, do you know where to?)

Куда ты идёшь после работы? (Where are you going after work?)

3. откуда (from where):

Used to inquire about the starting point or origin, often to understand the background or starting position of people or things.

Example: Ты недавно откуда вернулся? ( Where did you return from recently?)

Откуда взял эту идею? ( Where did this idea come from?)

4. здесь (here):

Refers to the speaker's current location or nearby places, emphasizing spatial proximity.

Example: Мы можем встретиться здесь, в этом кафе. (We can meet here, in this café.)

Оставь книгу здесь, я заберу позже. (Leave the book here, I'll pick it up later.)

5. там (there):

Contrasts with «здесь», referring to a place farther away from the speaker, whether physically distant or mentioned in conversation.

Example: Там, за горой, скрывается прекрасный вид на долину. (There, behind the mountain, is a beautiful view of the valley.)

Там, на столе, лежит твоя записка. (There, on the table, is your note.)

These locative adverbs convey precise information about positions and directions through concise vocabulary, making them indispensable in Russian communication. Proper use allows for quick consensus between interlocutors, especially when describing positional relationships or giving directions, enhancing communication efficiency significantly.

2. Prepositions + Noun Changes

Different prepositions in Russian carry their own unique meanings, and even the same preposition can take on varied meanings when combined with nouns in different cases. When expressing spatial concepts, these prepositions allow listeners to intuitively grasp the actual positions of objects, such as up/down, front/back, inside/outside, etc., as Kobozeva noted: «prepositions abstract the spatial attributes of objects and schematize their relationships» [16].

Similarly, prepositions used to express time in Russian are strict, varying according to different time categories such as weeks, years, before or after specific points in time. Russian prepositions require subsequent nouns to follow case change rules and emphasize semantic coherence. For example, compare the following sentences:

– Книга лежит на столе — The book is on the table.

– Книга лежит в столе — The book is inside the table.

This clearly demonstrates the semantic difference of prepositions. Notably, certain nouns are fixedly paired with specific prepositions in Russian, such as «в» (in...) and «на» (on...), which follow traditional usage when expressing concepts like «на свете» (in the world) and «в мире» (on earth), without arbitrary interchange based on their general meanings.

The choice of prepositions is often constrained by the following nouns, pronouns, numerals, or phrases. When forming positional phrases, these subsequent words change to specific case forms, enriching the meaning of the positional phrase. For example:

– у дома (near the house): The noun дом (house) changes to the second case singular form дома in the presence of the preposition у.

– в комнате (in the room): The noun комната (room) changes to the sixth case singular form комнате when preceded by the preposition в.

– на улице (on the street): The noun улица (street) changes to the sixth case singular form улице when followed by the preposition на.

Russian positional structures extend beyond physical space descriptions, delving into abstract concepts, time sequences, and social relationship expressions, showcasing the richness and flexibility of the language.

Russian positional structures can also depict abstract spaces, such as mental states, emotions, or situations within conceptual frameworks. For example:

– В мыслях я был далеко от дома. (In my thoughts, I was far from home.) — Using the preposition «в» to express a position in thought or mind. The noun мысль (thought) changes to the sixth case plural form мыслях when preceded by the preposition в.

– Он всегда стоит на стороне справедливости. (He always stands on the side of justice.) — «На стороне» expresses a position or viewpoint, with the noun сторона (side) changing to the sixth case singular form стороне when preceded by the preposition на.

Time can also be viewed as a «space», and expressing temporal relations through locative structures is common in Russian:

– Мы встретимся через неделю. (We will meet in a week.) — «Через» as a preposition indicates «through» or «after» in time.

– В прошлом году мы были в России. (Last year we were in Russia.) — «В прошлом году» uses the spatial concept «in»... to express a time point.

Positional structures can also reflect interpersonal social relationships, status changes, or psychological states:

– Она вышла замуж за богатого бизнесмена. (She married a wealthy businessman.) — The preposition «за» not only indicates physical following but also implies the establishment of a marital relationship.

– Он оказался вне закона. (He became outside the law.) — «Вне» indicates a state outside the legal framework.

Thus, Russian positional structures not only describe physical spaces but also capture abstract concepts, times, and social dynamics, demonstrating the language's depth and versatility.

3. Locative Adverbs and Phrases

Some adverbs can directly and clearly convey spatial position without requiring additional vocabulary support: сверху (from above), справа (on the right), слева (on the left), снизу (from below, underneath), направо (to the right), налево (to the left), внутри (inside), снаружи (outside), за (behind, used to indicate position), перед (in front of), между (between, usually paired with plural nouns, e.g., «между домами» — between houses)

These adverbs can be used independently to simply indicate direction, or they can be combined with nouns or pronouns to describe position relations more precisely, for example: «я сижу справа от окна» (I am sitting to the right of the window).

Additionally, there is a category of static positional prepositional phrases in Russian, such as «у окна» (next to the window). Although not entirely adverbs, these expressions effectively convey spatial information.

The flexible use of locative terms in Russian enables accurate and efficient descriptions of complex spatial layouts or directional guidance. For example:

– Картина висит над диваном. (The picture hangs above the sofa.)

– Дом находится между школой и парком. (The house is located between the school and the park.)

– Поверните направо на следующем перекрестке. (Turn right at the next intersection.)

– Книга лежит на столе, а ручка — под столом. (The book is on the table, and the pen is under the table.)

The richness and flexibility of positional words enable Russian to describe spatial relationships accurately and vividly, establishing clear spatial cognition for the listener or reader.

In summary, the expression of positional relations in Russian heavily depends on the case changes of nouns and the selection and application of prepositions, verbs, and adverbs that align consistently with these changes. Adhering to these syntactic structures ensures precise and idiomatic expression of various spatial relationships in Russian.

II. Ways of Expressing Positional Relations in Chinese

Positional words in modern Chinese constitute a rather special class of words that exhibit complexity and uniqueness in both grammar and semantics. There remains controversy over their definition and classification, with various opinions among grammarians. In forming words or phrases, positional words can be used singly, placed after, or prefixed to other words, provided they express direction, position, quantity, time, scope, or limits. Moreover, components indicating «location» are not exclusively positional words. When prefixed in a phrase, the component indicating location is a distinguishing word rather than a positional word. According to Zhu Dehui in his «Lecture Notes on Grammar», positional words can indicate location, but he also mentions that «上 (upper)», «中 (middle)», «下 (lower)», «以上 (above)», and «以下 (below)» can represent other contexts: «……上» indicates in some aspect, «……下» indicates condition, «以上、以下» indicates limit, and «在……中» indicates scope (when inserted into a predicate, it indicates a situation that is ongoing) [11].

Positional structures, or positional phrases, are formed by combining positional words with other words, capable of conveying temporal meanings, locations, and scope. Additionally, they possess unique meanings such as abstract scope, state, condition, or process. Regarding the combination patterns of positional phrases, Liu Haiyan provided a clear discussion in her paper titled «Positional Phrases and Related Structures in Modern Chinese». However, Liu Zuo Hui and Wang Guanghua in their essay «On Positional Words and Positional Phrases» suggested that the safest approach is to consider phrases formed by «word (or phrase) + positional words» as «attributive phrases» [12]. According to Liu Haiyan in his work «Positional Phrases and Related Structures in Modern Chinese», the combination patterns can be divided into three types:

1. X + positional words:

X and the positional word cannot be separated by «的», such as 教室里 (in the classroom), 桌子上 (on the table), 五十以上 (over fifty), 上课之前 (before class), 下班之后 (after work).

2. X + 的 + positional words:

«的» can be inserted between X and the spatial term, such as 桌子的上面 (on top of the table), 教室的后面 (behind the classroom), 垃圾桶的旁边 (beside the trash can), 角落花盆的下边 (under the flower pot in the corner). This type offers a clearer indication of a specific location compared to the first pattern X + positional words

3. X + ( 的 ) + positional words:

Here, «的» can be omitted, making little difference from the second combination pattern. Both indicate the meaning of «location», and according to the principle of positional sequence, the linear order of linguistic structure reflects the cognitive spatial order of the referred objects or events. The basic structure of Chinese positional phrases is «reference word + positional word», conforming to the cognitive order of human spatial perception. Reverse order can be further divided into «same-meaning reverse order» and «different-meaning reverse order». «Same-meaning reverse order» refers to maintaining the same meaning regardless of the order of terms. Positional phrases involving plane reference objects fall into this category:

1. X + Positional words

In this construction, «X«and the positional word cannot be separated by «的». Examples include 教室里 (in the classroom), 桌子上 (on the table), 五十以上 (over fifty), 上课之前 (before class), 下班之后 (after work), etc.

Types of «X» in «X + Positional words»:

(a) «X» as Content Words

Generally, these are verbs and nouns, for example:

– 黑板上写着今天的作业。(Today's homework is written on the blackboard.)

– 作业写完之前不能看电视。(You can't watch TV until you finish your homework.)

– 他快速爬到了楼梯上面。(He quickly climbed up the stairs.)

– 吃饭前你应该好好洗手。(You should wash your hands well before eating.)

– 在没有完成这项任务前，你最好不要开展其他活动。(You'd better not start other activities before completing this task.)

In these examples, 黑板上 (on the blackboard), 写完之前 (before finishing), 楼梯上面 (upstairs), 吃饭前 (before eating), 任务前 (before the task) combine real words like 黑板 (blackboard), 写 (write), 楼梯 (stair), 吃饭 (eat), 任务 (task) with positional words to indicate space, time, scope, etc.

(b) Time Terms + Positional word

Time-related words combined with positional words, for instance:

– 十一点之前睡觉有助于健康。(Sleeping before eleven o'clock is good for health.)

– 我的工作下午五点之前就可以完成。(I can finish my work before five o'clock in the afternoon.)

Here, 十一点之前 (before eleven o'clock) and 五点之前 (before five o'clock) clearly indicate time.

(c) Quantifiers + Positional word

For example:

– 这个旅行团要十五人以上才可以开团。(This tour group needs more than fifteen people to start.)

– 妈妈希望我三十岁之前嫁出去。(Mom hopes I get married before I turn thirty.)

In these examples, 十五人以上 (more than fifteen people) and 三十岁之前 (before turning thirty) use quantifiers combined with positional words to denote quantitative ranges.

(d) Location words + Positional words

Typically, location nouns combined with positional words, such as:

– 这栋大楼上边有一个小花园。(There is a small garden on top of this building.)

– 赶来的众人走出庭院，仰望天空，又望望屋顶上面，却什么都没有看见。(The crowd that arrived walked out of the courtyard, looked up at the sky, then looked up at the roof but saw nothing.)

In these examples, 大楼上边 (top of the building) and 屋顶上面 (on the roof) use location terms 大楼 (building) and 屋顶 (roof) to denote specific spatial positions.

(e) Phrases + Positional word

Also known as positional phrases, for example:

– 洗漱台上边的架子要倒了。(The shelf on top of the sink is about to fall.)

– 改革开放后不久，我国汽车工业迅速起步，威海路汽配街重新形成。(Shortly after the reform and opening up, our country's automobile industry rapidly took off, and Weihai Road Auto Parts Street reformed.)

– 不要在太阳没出来之前到树林中去运动，因为这时树林中还存有大量的二氧化碳。(Don't exercise in the woods before the sun comes up because there's still a lot of carbon dioxide in the forest at this time.)

– 有几具被放在树又上，其余的藏在浓密的灌木下边。(A few were placed on the tree branches; the rest were hidden beneath the thick shrubs.)

From these examples, 楼梯上面 (upstairs), 屋顶上面 (on the roof), 洗漱台上边 (on top of the sink), etc., are directly combined with spatial terms without any additional components, indicating a restricting relationship, and structurally, they are attributive phrases. However, they clearly bear the mark of spatial phrases.

2. X + 的 + Positional words

In this construction, «的» can be inserted between «X» and the positional word, such as 桌子的上面 (on the table), 教室的后面 (behind the classroom), 垃圾桶的旁边 (beside the trash can), 角落花盆的下边 (under the flower pot in the corner), etc. This type provides a clearer indication of a specific location than «X + Positional words», offering a more precise position.

(a) «X» as Content Words

Here, «X» is generally a noun or verb, for example:

– 我突然想起来我还有一本书落在那个书架的上面。(I suddenly remembered I left a book on top of that bookshelf.)

– 说完以后，大助迅速跳到了柏油路的上面。(After saying that, Dazhu quickly jumped onto the asphalt road.)

– 聂小轩一个踉跄跌到马后车前，把手伸到车轮的前边。(Nie Xiaoxuan stumbled and fell in front of the carriage, reaching his hand in front of the wheel.)

– 钢琴的前边还放着一把大提琴。(In front of the piano, there's also a cello.)

In these examples, 书架的上面 (on top of the bookshelf), 柏油路的上面 (on the asphalt road), 车轮的前边 (in front of the wheel) use real words like 书架 (bookshelf), 柏油路 (asphalt road), 车轮 (wheel) combined with "的" to denote a more specific range.

(b) Phrases + 的 + Positional word

For example:

– 他一下子想起爸爸来，想起爸爸站在书架的前边翻书的样子。(He suddenly remembered his father standing in front of the bookshelf flipping through books.)

– 打架的动静就在靠近他们藏身之处的上边传过来，他们可以清楚的听见拳打脚踢声。(The sound of the fight came from above near where they were hiding; they could clearly hear the sound of punches and kicks.)

– 我一直以为，放映室就在影厅的后上方、小窗口的后面，与影厅仅一墙之隔。(I always thought the projection room was just above and behind the small window of the cinema hall, separated from the hall by only one wall.)

In the above examples, 柏油路的上面 (on the asphalt road), 大花园的上头 (above the big garden), 藏身之处的上头 (above the hiding place), etc., are directly combined with spatial terms without any additional components, indicating a restricting relationship, but their attributive relationship is presented by the structural particle «的». Here, «的» can be omitted without affecting the structure.

In «X + Positional word», the positional word has a tendency to be vague and should be lightly read, as well as after trend verbs like 去 (go), 在 (be at), 到 (arrive), 往 (towards), etc. However, in «X + 的 + Positional word», the positional word has the characteristic of a real noun and can be replaced by other real words, and should not be lightly read.

III. Expression and Cognitive Differences of Spatial Concepts in Russian and Chinese Languages

Russian and Chinese speakers share many similarities in understanding the spatial world. Notably, one prominent feature of spatial cognition in Chinese is its emphasis on surface-level positional relationships, which coincidentally aligns with the Russian tendency to flatten spatial concepts. However, the visual form of Chinese characters provides a unique advantage in expressing spatial concepts and constructing spatial imagery, something that phonetic writing systems lack. Jin Tao’s perspective suggests that the core of spatial concept construction in Chinese is not based on the subdivision of spatial relations, but rather revolves around the development of the concept of «place». In the spatial expression system of European languages, particularly Russian, the concept of «being inside» often translates into Chinese using the particle «上» (on). For example, в аудитории — 在教室里 (in the classroom), в самолете — 在飞机里 (in the airplane), в автобусе — 在公交车上 (on the bus), в книге — 在书中 (in the book), в газете — 在报纸上 (in the newspaper), в мире — 在世界上 (in the world) — Russian phrases using the preposition «в» typically translate into Chinese using the noun followed by the spatial term «上» to indicate being inside or within the scope of something, rather than strictly on the surface. This transformation highlights the differences in spatial expression between the two languages. The main reason for these differences lies in the varying ways that different language systems cognitively process spatial entities. The Chinese character «上» is not strictly limited to the upper dimension of three-dimensional space but instead indicates the relative position of a nominal subject on the «point, line, plane» of space. When Chinese speakers refer to «在火车上» (on the train), they focus on the plane where the action occurs, with «火车» (train) being perceived as a closed environment, and «上» not only indicates a level but also implies the completeness of the scenario. It is worth noting that learners of Chinese may face challenges in mastering the Russian prepositions «в» and «на» since the Chinese «上» and «里» somewhat blur the boundaries between interior and upper dimensions, both tending to express the concept of a closed space.

Furthermore, while each language has its unique characteristics, all languages have rich means to describe spatial relationships, reflecting universality. In this field, Leonard Talmy’s theory divides the means of expressing spatial relations into two levels: the macroscopic expository level, involving open lexical elements (such as nouns, adjectives, and verbs) that directly depict space; and the fine-structural level, including closed grammatical elements and syntactic structures, such as morphological markers, function words, and specific sentence patterns, which regulate the expression of spatial relations on a finer structural level. Such adjustments primarily serve to enhance the logical coherence and clarity of expressions without altering the original meaning [17].

In Russian, expressing positional relations mainly relies on the combination of prepositions with nouns in specific cases. For example, the preposition «в» combined with the noun in the sixth case indicates «being inside», while «на» combined with the noun in the sixth case indicates «being on top». In Chinese, one primary means of expressing positional relations is through the use of positional words that directly combine with nouns or other positional words, forming a «noun + positional word» structure to clearly indicate the relative position of objects or persons in space. For example:

– 房子后面有一片竹林 (Behind the house is a bamboo grove).

– 她坐在教室中间 (She sits in the middle of the classroom).

– 他在队伍前列 (He is at the front of the line).

When discussing the definition of positional words in Chinese, it is noteworthy that one special property of Chinese positional words is their post-positionality, although not all must attach to a noun to be used, this is still the most common usage, especially for simple positional words, such as «操场上», «在包里» (on the playground, in the bag). In contrast, Russian spatial prepositions differ significantly from Chinese positional words due to their positioning; Russian uses the «spatial preposition + noun or noun phrase» method to express spatial relations, with a prepositional nature, for example: «В вазе цветок» (There is a flower in the vase). In this sentence, «в» is a spatial preposition, and «вазе» is the noun «vase». Another example: «Я учился за границей» (I studied abroad). In this sentence, «за» is a spatial preposition, and «границей» is the noun «border».

In Chinese, when used in a frame structure, positional words are typically part of a prepositional phrase composed of «preposition + noun + positional word». When this prepositional phrase functions as an adverbial in the sentence, the preposition cannot be omitted. For example, 因为妈妈是医生，我从小就在医院里玩 (Because mom is a doctor, I played in the hospital when I was young). In this example, «在» (in) cannot be omitted. However, when Chinese positional words are used in existential sentences to indicate the existence of someone or something somewhere, the preposition cannot be used, for example: 天上飞着一只老鹰(An eagle is flying in the sky). This example cannot be stated as «在天上飞着一只老鹰» (In the sky, an eagle is flying). Therefore, whether to pair Chinese positional words with prepositions depends on the specific context.

However, unlike Chinese, Russian spatial expressions are integrative, where the spatial prepositions themselves carry a more complete meaning than Chinese positional words. For example, «в» can correspond to «里» in Chinese, as well as «在……里». Example: «Я поставила цветы в вазу». This sentence means «I put the flowers in the vase», and «в вазу» (in the vase) is expressed identically in both instances.

IV. Conclusion

This article compares the syntactic structures of positional expressions in Chinese and Russian. The study finds that while there are similarities, there are also distinctions in how these languages express positional relations.

In common aspects, both Chinese and Russian use positional words (Chinese) or prepositions (Russian) to describe the spatial relationships between objects. These terms can effectively combine with nouns, pronouns, and even adverbs to form diverse positional or prepositional phrases. Both languages demonstrate high expression flexibility, capable of conveying complex spatial information accurately and vividly, reflecting a shared level of spatial cognition precision.

Differences primarily lie in syntactic position and vocabulary richness. Chinese positional words show greater syntactic freedom, capable of preceding or following nouns, providing more possibilities for contextual expression. Conversely, Russian prepositions remain consistently positioned before nouns, with a relatively fixed syntactic position. Additionally, Russian exhibits greater diversity in spatial prepositions, allowing finer distinctions and expressions of spatial layers and details, a feature that Chinese lacks.

Through this comparative analysis, we gain deeper insights into the mechanisms of spatial expression in Chinese and Russian, providing valuable implications for language education, translation practices, and cross-cultural communication. These findings emphasize the importance of recognizing the specific rules and cultural differences in expressing spatial concepts when teaching and learning these languages, promoting more effective communication and understanding.

To summarize, in expressing positional relations, Chinese positional words primarily combine directly with nouns or related words to form positional phrases, applicable for both concrete physical and abstract spatial concepts. This structure is straightforward and intuitively conveys spatial information, serving as a key method for spatial expression in Chinese. Compared to the Russian method of using prepositions plus nouns with case changes to express positional relations, Chinese positional expressions do not involve complex case changes but rely on fixed vocabulary combinations and word order to achieve spatial positioning.

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