Methods and techniques of translating poetry works



Translation of poetry works is undoubtedly a special kind of literary translation. It is an act of both interlanguage and intercultural communication and necessarily requires creative reworking of the original. It is designed to bring the art and beauty of the word to representatives of different languages and cultures. As in the poetic text itself, the unity of form and content must be preserved in the poetic translation. However, such unity should not be completely equivalent to the corresponding unity in the original text. The main principle of translation is adequacy, which consists in the comparability of the aesthetic impact of the original and the translation.

Keywords: poetry, translation, methods, transformation, technique.

The translation method is a deliberate system of related procedures that considers the type of translation as well as the naturally occurring translation techniques [1. p. 100–111]. P. A. Vyazemsky distinguishes between two translation techniques: independent and subordinate, because any two languages are incommensurable by nature. After the first, the translator «pours the spirit of the original into his forms, imbued with it; after the second, he seeks to maintain the forms themselves, naturally in consideration of the elements of the language that is at hand.»... In Russia, Karamzin and Zhukovsky provided excellent examples of independent translations, or re-creations, or transmigrations of souls from foreign languages into Russian [2. p. 10]. First and foremost, translators who use the subordinate way of translation aim to accurately represent the work’s form. This translation approach assumes that the poem's dimensions, stanzas, and meters will all be preserved, as well as the rhyme scheme, melody, and sound structure. This is the only way to maintain the author's unique style in translation, according to many translators [3. p. 36]. Therefore, prior to selecting a translation technique, a translator needs to ascertain the goal of the translation, the target audience, and the characteristics of the target language—that is, how well the target language can express the characteristics of the source language. Researcher K. Rice writes: «The translator translates, that is, carries out the transfer in two directions: either he transfers the foreign author to his reader, or he transfers his reader to the foreign author. Hence, there are two completely different methods of translation. In the first case, the translator sees his task in bringing the original closer to the method of thinking and to the language of his compatriots, in order to make the foreign author speak as his compatriot would speak. In the second case, the reader must clearly feel that a foreigner is addressing him. He must learn new, unfamiliar thoughts and means of expression, he must feel not at home, but in a foreign land…» [4. p. 202].

According to local linguists, a translation ought to be as readable as the source text. In their creative creations, some translators aim to capture the characteristics of foreign speech. N. A. Zabolotsky writes, «This is a misconception: a cuckoo cannot call a thrush, and a nightingale cannot call a cuckoo» [5. p. 251]. The type of poetry determines the translation method to be used. According to E. G. Etkind, «the relationship between logical content, stylistic expression, and sound pattern changes depending on the type of poetry» [6. p. 40]. The primary goal in translating works with social orientation is to convey the meaning and stylistic coloring of the text, but it is crucial to convey an image or mood when translating lyric poetry.

The approach developed by V. Ya. Bryusov states that the combination of a poetry work's different constituent elements—such as language style, pictures, meter and rhyme, verse movement, and the play of syllables and sounds—more or less thoroughly represent the artist's sentiment and poetic idea. Since it is impossible to precisely and completely translate all of these elements, the translator tries to express one or, at most, two of them (usually image and rhyme), altering the others. Nevertheless, as V. Ya. Bryusov points out, there are poems where the primary focus is not visuals but rather, for instance, word sounds or even rhymes. The most crucial decision is whatever aspect of the poetry being translated is most crucial [7. p. 188–189]. Another problem arises when translating works written in a language that is not the author's native language. Here the translator is forced to abandon the traditional dichotomy of «original language — translation language» and include another language (the author's native language), which conveys certain concepts of the original culture and ideas characteristic of its speakers [8. p. 1].

Thus, the following principles can be identified that should be followed when translating poetry:

– reader-oriented;

– consideration of nationally specific elements;

– identity of the original and the translation.

The translator must use a variety of transformations when translating poetry, which is typically caused by the translator's innate worldview and the related phenomenon of linguistic selectivity. Every culture has unique realities that pertain to many facets of human existence. Realia is characterized as an occurrence or object that is unusual for one culture and characteristic of another. They are the ones that are most challenging to translate. They should therefore be given more consideration when translating. Translation alterations may also be caused by internal language factors, such as compatibility and the communicative structure of statements. It is the translator's responsibility to replicate all aspects of the message's style and form in the target language, in addition to faithfully expressing the ideas expressed in the source language. This is what sets translation apart from other techniques of communicating in a different language, such as summarizing or retelling, since it recreates the unity of form and substance. The issue is that the internal structure of the source and destination languages differs in the majority of cases. It is always necessary to make grammatical changes initially when there are structural differences between the two languages. These mismatches are either complete or partial. The transformations by which the transition from the units of the original to the units of translation is carried out are called translation transformations. Ya. I. Retsker distinguishes two types of transformations:

– grammatical transformations in the form of replacement of parts of speech or members of a sentence;

– lexical transformations consist of concretization, generalization, differentiation of meanings, anatomical translation of compensation for losses that arise in the translation process, as well as semantic development and holistic transformation [9. p. 78].

V. E. Shchetinkin names the following types of translation transformations:

– lexical — concretization, antonymic translation, amplification, generalization, semantic agreement, adaptation, compensation, explication;

– stylistic — one common technique — modulation;

– grammatical — four subtypes are distinguished: permutations, omissions, replacements, additions [10. p. 28].

In contrast to them, L. K. Latyshev identifies six types of translation transformations:

– lexical transformations — replacement of lexemes with synonyms depending on the context;

– stylistic transformations — transformation of the stylistic coloring of the word being translated;

– morphological transformations — transformation of one part of speech into another or its replacement with several parts of speech;

– syntactic transformations — transformation of syntactic constructions (words, phrases and sentences), change of the type of subordinate clauses, type of syntactic connection, transformation of sentences into phrases and rearrangement of subordinate clauses in complex and compound sentences;

– semantic transformations («semantic development») — replacement of detail-features;

– transformations of mixed type — converse transformation and antonymic translation [11. p. 74].

Finding an equivalent, transposition, adaptation, and modulation are included in the second group, while literal translation, tracing, and borrowing are included in the first. The following conclusion can be drawn after taking into account the opinions of numerous academics, both local and foreign: the writers share a common understanding of how to recognize particular kinds of translation alterations. It should be mentioned, nonetheless, that the fact that various linguists recognize varying numbers of translation transformation procedures makes it difficult to develop a single classification. Combining transformations can give them the appearance of complex transformations. The same transformations can be categorized as distinct types, and different transformation types can be used interchangeably. It should be mentioned that the original's intonation and rhythmic-melodic structure are rarely replicated by translations. The poetry under consideration is composed of two six-line stanzas in iambic pentameter, which is more common than pentacles and tercets but less common than quatrains. Since there are no set forms for the six-line stanzas, the translator has a lot of options. The most «song-like» rhyme, sometimes referred to as a Ronsard stanza, is one of the various rhymes used.

Since the translator nearly always runs into differences between the grammatical structures of the source and target languages, grammatical transformations are the most prevalent kind of interlingual transformations. Many grammatical transformations were examined in this work, including rearranging sentences, changing sentence components, changing reverse word order to direct word order, adding or removing words, changing parts of speech grammatically, and making unmotivated changes.

Within the framework of this study, we share the position of R. R. Tchaikovsky, who believes that poetic translation is possible. Moreover, based on the analysis of textual material of the 20th century, the scientist identifies 9 types of poetic translation [12, p. 56]:

1) adequate translation,

2) free translation,

3) imitation,

4) translation — reminiscence,

5) translation — devaluation,

6) poem on the motive of the original,

7) interlinear translation,

8) prose translation,

9) adaptation.

The same poetry original can be translated in a variety of ways. Three essentially distinct approaches to translating the same literary original are available, depending on the kind of information the translator wants to convey as accurately as possible (and this, of course, depends on the communicative function he chooses for his production).

1. The sole method for translating poetry meant for poetic communication is poetic translation itself. Two requirements must be met by poetry communication: first, it must be a poetic text that serves as its carrier (and causal agent); second, it must be structured in a way that allows it to communicate the most complicated information in a succinct verbal manner. The poetry language contains so much information that dozens of scientists' multi-volume studies are occasionally devoted to interpreting a single sonnet.

2. Poetic translation is a technique for translating poetry in which the original's factual content is expressed solely through poetic discourse in the target language.

Both artistically and in terms of words and idioms, this kind of translation closely resembles the original. This type of translation was mastered by such great poets as Katenin, Fet, and Vyazemsky in the previous century, and by A. Blok and M. Gasparov in the current one. Regretfully, conceptual information is distorted and aesthetic information is essentially not reproduced by this kind of translation.

3. A poetry text's philological translation is done in prose and aims to convey the original's factual information as completely as possible, practically verbatim.

The difficulties of translating poetry have consistently drawn far more attention than those of translating other types of literature. Many works in this field, however, are mostly either evaluations of various translation possibilities for a single book or anecdotes of individual translators addressing their own challenges.

André Lefevere, a translation theorist from Belgium, lists seven distinct approaches to interpreting poetry:

1. Phonemic translation is an effort to accurately express the meaning of a text while preserving its original sound. Lefevere comes to the conclusion that even though he actively employs onomatopoeia, these translations are typically awkward and frequently pointless.
2. Aliteral translation , which alters the original's grammar and meaning.
3. Metrical translation , in which maintaining the original text's meter is the primary requirement. Lefevere claims that, similar to literal translation, in this instance, the focus is on a single element of the source text at the expense of the text as a whole.
4. Poetry presented in prose, which, in Lefever's opinion, results in the loss of the original text's grammatical elements, meaning, and communication value.
5. Rhymed translation . The translator «falls into double bondage» of meter and rhyme when translating rhyming texts. Such translations are referred to as «caricatures» by Lefever.
6. Translation in blank verse : though this type of translation is more accurate and literal, the translator's options for text organization are restricted.
7. Interpretation . Lefever classifies imitations, in which the translator produces his own poetic works that only «the title and the starting point of the narrative» match the original text, as well as translations that retain the essence of the original text but alter its form.

Since the translator overemphasizes one or more aspects of the poetry work at the expense of all the others, it is evident that each of these methods has shortcomings.

The translation of poetry from the distant past presents a different challenge. After all, not only are the poet and his peers deceased at the time of translation, but so is the poetry work's contextual value. Additionally, the genre itself may be «dead» at times, as in the case of pastoral, and a translation that does not closely like the original in terms of form, size, and structure will not assist to revitalize it.

Poetry translation entails maintaining rhythm, tone, imagery, and emotional impact in addition to transmitting meaning. In order to preserve the spirit of the original poem and make it appealing to the intended audience, translators must employ a variety of strategies to negotiate language barriers. In this delicate balance, the translation strategies of generalization, modulation, omission, addition, and concretization can all be very important.

1. Concretization in poetry translation is the process of giving abstract ideas from the original poem more concrete or precise meaning in the target language. This grounds the poem's imagery and frequently facilitates the intended audience's ability to see the scenario or comprehend the feeling. For instance, the line «I doubted if I should ever come back» from Robert Frost's well-known poem « The Road Not Taken » could be translated into a more specific phrase in another language, such as «I feared I might never return». Here, the nebulous «doubted» gives way to the more tangible and passionate «feared» which intensifies the sensation and makes it more immediate. The translator makes sure that the imagery or emotional impact is clear and relatable by employing concretization.
2. Addition is employed when the translator feels compelled to include more background or explanation that isn't expressed in the original text but aids the reader in understanding the intended meaning, particularly in poetry where cultural allusions and imagery can be very specific. For instance, the term «the river» which in Chinese poetry may metaphorically relate to the passage of time or a voyage, may appear in a translation of a classical Chinese poem. For readers who are not familiar with the symbolism, a translator may use «the river, symbolizing the passage of time», to help them grasp its deeper significance. Addition helps clarify cultural or contextual nuances that might be lost in translation. In poetry, where meaning is often compressed, this can be crucial for the reader’s understanding.
3. Omission. When translating poetry, omission refers to removing words or components from the source that are culturally particular, superfluous to the overall meaning, or that might alter the poem's rhythm and flow in the target language. Sometimes the emotional or artistic quality of the poem is preserved by leaving out certain elements. As an illustration, the original German text of Rainer Maria Rilke's poem «The Panther» has the line, «Die Stäbe sind aus Eisen». This could be translated literally as «The bars are made of iron». The word «iron» in English, however, could add needless weight. The material element may be left out by the translator, who might translate it as «The bars» which is adequate to capture the feeling of imprisonment without disrupting the beat. Omission is often employed when the original detail doesn’t significantly affect the meaning or rhythm of the poem in the target language, thus maintaining the aesthetic flow.
4. Generalization is the process of substituting a more general phrase in the target language for a specific one in the source text. This is especially useful when a more universal or generalized term is more effective and a particular cultural reference, object, or concept is absent from the target language. Consider the following passage from Pablo Neruda's « The Book of Questions »: «What happened to the fish of the river Araucano?» In Chilean culture, the term «Araucano» is highly particular. To make the topic more accessible to a wider audience, a translator can generalize it to «What happened to the fish of the river?» particularly if the geographical reference doesn't have the same meaning in the target language. Generalization helps to make the poem’s meaning universally relatable, avoiding cultural specificity that might be confusing for readers from a different background.
5. In poetry translation, modulation refers to altering the original text's viewpoint or emphasis in order to produce a more organic or significant expression in the target language. While adjusting it to the linguistic and cultural features of the target language, this may entail changing the voice, structure, or point of view to preserve the original's rhythm, tone, or emotion. The line «Il dort» in Arthur Rimbaud's English translation of his French poem «Le Dormeur du Val» is one example. He sleeps. Quoique le sort fût pour lui bien étrange. Despite the fact that fate was peculiar for him, this could be adjusted to something like «He sleeps, though fate had dealt him a cruel hand». Modulation helps the translator adjust for stylistic differences between languages, ensuring that the emotional weight of the original is preserved while the target text sounds natural and poetic in its new form.

To sum up, when translating poetry, strategies including generalization, modulation, omission, concretization, and addition are used to maintain the original work's emotional depth, rhythm, and meaning while also making it understandable to a diverse linguistic and cultural audience. These methods are particularly helpful in overcoming the difficulties associated with translating poetry's highly symbolic, condensed, and culturally distinctive content. In order to ensure that the translated poem strikes a deep chord with its new audience, the translator must strike a balance between maintaining the original text's integrity and the requirement for poetic fluency in the target language.

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